為什麼世衛組織花了兩年時間才說 COVID 是透過空氣傳播的
資料來源:自然 604, 26-31 (2022)/ doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00925-7 /財團法人台灣紅絲帶基金會編譯
在大流行初期,世界衛生組織表示 SARS-CoV-2 不是透過空氣傳播的。這一錯誤以及糾正錯誤的漫長過程造成了混亂,並引發了人們對下一次大流行會發生什麼的疑問。
2020 年初關於 COVID-19 的公共衛生建議側重於對表面進行消毒,而不是防止空氣傳播。圖片來源:Ozan Kose/法新社/ Getty
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隨著 2021 年接近尾聲,具有高度傳染性的 Omicron 大流行病毒變異株正在全球肆虐,迫使各國政府再次採取嚴厲行動。荷蘭於 12 月 19 日下令大多數企業關閉,愛爾蘭實行宵禁,許多國家實施了旅行禁令,以期緩解因 COVID-19 病例湧入醫院的海嘯。在年終假期前後傳來的絕望消息浪潮中,一組研究人員對一項似乎永遠不會到來的發展表示歡迎。 12 月 23 日,世界衛生組織 (WHO) 說出了它以前似乎無法適用於病毒 SARS-CoV-2 的一個詞:「空氣傳播」。
在其網站上,一個標題為「冠狀病毒病(COVID-19):它是如何傳播的?」的頁面被悄悄地編輯為『「當通過空氣的傳染性顆粒在短距離內被吸入時」,一個人可能會被感染,一個途徑也稱為「短程氣溶膠或短程空中傳播」的過程。該網站稱,在通風不良或擁擠的室內環境中,可以通過「遠程空氣傳播」進行傳播,「因為氣溶膠可以懸浮在空氣中或傳播的距離超過對話距離」。
科羅拉多大學博爾德分校的氣溶膠化學家 Jose-Luis Jimenez 說:「看到他們終於使用了『空氣傳播』這個詞,並且清楚地說空氣傳播和氣溶膠傳播是同義詞,這讓我鬆了一口氣」。
看似沒有爭議的聲明標誌著總部位於瑞士的世衛組織發生了明顯的轉變,該組織在大流行初期就明確地在推特上發布了「事實:#COVID19 不是空氣傳播的」,用大寫字母表示否定,似乎是為了消除任何疑問。當時,該機構堅持認為,病毒主要通過人咳嗽、打噴嚏或說話時產生的飛沫傳播,這是基於幾十年前關於呼吸道病毒通常是如何從一個人傳播到另一個人的感染控制教義的假設。該指引建議保持一米以上的距離——這些飛沫被認為會落到地上——同時洗手和表面消毒,以阻止飛沫傳播到眼睛、鼻子和嘴巴。
直到 2020 年 10 月 20 日,該機構才承認氣溶膠——微小的液體顆粒——可以傳播病毒,但世衛組織表示,這僅在特定環境中令人擔憂,例如室內、擁擠和通風不足的空間。在接下來的六個月裡,該機構逐漸改變了建議,稱氣溶膠可以攜帶病毒超過一米並留在空氣中(參見「改變對 COVID 如何傳播的看法」)。
但這一最新調整是世衛組織迄今為止關於 SARS-CoV-2 空氣傳播的最明確聲明。它將病毒置於一組精選的「空氣傳播」感染中,這個標籤長期以來只為少數世界上毒性最強的病原體保留,包括麻疹、水痘和肺結核。
這一變化使世衛組織的信息與氣溶膠專家和公共衛生專家自疫情爆發初期以來一直試圖表達的一致。許多人譴責該機構遲遲沒有明確表示 SARS-CoV-2 是空氣傳播的。 《自然》雜誌對數十名疾病傳播專家進行的採訪顯示,世衛組織不願交流和接受空氣傳播證據是基於一系列關於呼吸道病毒如何傳播之有問題的假設。
例如,即使在快速發展的流行中期,世衛組織也將現場流行病學報告視為空氣傳播的證據撤除因其證據不明確,證據在這爆發期間是很難迅速予以達成。其他批評是,世衛組織依賴的專家範圍很窄,其中許多人沒有研究過空氣傳播,而且它避開了本可以在大流行初期保護無數人的預防措施。
批評人士說,該機構的不作為導致世界各地的國家和地方衛生機構在應對空氣傳播威脅方面同樣遲緩。他們說,在過去兩年中逐步改變立場後,世衛組織也未能充分傳達其不斷變化的立場。因此,它沒有足夠早和足夠清楚地強調通風和室內口罩的重要性,這些是可以防止病毒通過空氣傳播的關鍵措施。澳大利亞布里斯班昆士蘭科技大學的氣溶膠科學家 Lidia Morawska 帶頭進行了多項努力,以說服世界衛生組織和其他衛生機構相信空氣傳播的威脅。她說,早在 2020 年 2 月,空氣傳播就「如此明顯」,將其從官方指引中忽略是災難性的。
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越來越多的證據顯示冠狀病毒是通過空氣傳播的——但健康建議還沒有跟上
但是,新加坡國立大學醫院的傳染病醫生兼世衛組織全球疫情警報和應對網絡指導委員會主席戴爾·費舍爾認為,對病毒是否通過空氣傳播的困惑並未對如何通過空氣傳播產生決定性影響。大流行已經結束。「這不是我們所看到的災難的原因」,他說。
鑑於形勢迅速變化,其他一些研究人員為該機構的反應辯護。以色列衛生部傳染病醫生、世界衛生組織外部顧問米切爾·施瓦伯(Mitchell Schwaber)說:「我真的不認為任何人都失控了,包括世衛組織」。「我們對這種病毒的許多假設都被證明是錯誤的。我們一直,我們一直在學習新事物」。
研究人員說,解決這場關於如何評估呼吸道病毒傳播的爭論很重要,因為任何時候都可能出現更致命的 SARS-CoV-2 變異株,而新的呼吸道病毒幾乎肯定會在某個時候困擾人類。目前尚不清楚世衛組織和世界是否會做好準備。
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空氣中的緊張
在 2020 年 3 月的最後幾天,Morawska 聯繫了數十名同事——包括氣溶膠科學家、傳染病專家以及建築和通風工程師的國際組合——以宣傳 SARS-CoV-2 的空氣傳播威脅。 2020 年 4 月 1 日,該小組向世衛組織突發衛生事件規劃負責人 Michael Ryan 和世衛組織 COVID-19 應對技術負責人 Maria Van Kerkhove 發送了一封電子郵件,闡述了他們的案件。
不到一個小時,該機構就接通了電話。兩天后,該小組與突發衛生事件規劃和感染預防和控制指導發展小組 (the Infection Prevention and Control Guidance Development Group , IPC GDG) 的成員參加了視頻會議——這是一個由約 40 名臨床醫生和研究人員組成的外部小組,為世衛組織提供感染控制方面的建議,特別是在醫院。會議召開時,已有超過 100 萬人感染了 SARS-CoV-2,54,000 人死亡。社區傳播在幾個國家十分猖獗。
Morawska 提出了她所說的空中傳播令人信服的案例。有兩個事實很突出。首先,有確鑿的證據顯示,即使人們距離傳染性個體超過一米(世界衛生組織建議的安全距離),他們也會被感染。其次,多年的機械研究表明,人的氣道中的粘液如何在說話時噴入氣溶膠並積聚在停滯的房間中。莫勞斯卡感到被世界衛生組織及其顧問拒絕了。「我沒有感覺到他們試圖從我們的角度看待這一點」,她說。
鑑於形勢迅速變化,其他一些研究人員為該機構的反應辯護。以色列衛生部傳染病醫生、世界衛生組織外部顧問米切爾·施瓦伯(Mitchell Schwaber)說:「我真的不認為任何人都失控了,包括世衛組織」。「我們對這種病毒的許多假設都被證明是錯誤的。我們一直,我們一直在學習新事物」。
研究人員說,解決這場關於如何評估呼吸道病毒傳播的爭論很重要,因為任何時候都可能出現更致命的 SARS-CoV-2 變體,而新的呼吸道病毒幾乎肯定會在某個時候困擾人類。目前尚不清楚世衛組織和世界是否會做好準備。
她和其他研究氣溶膠和空氣傳播疾病傳播的人說,IPC GDG 沒有能力評估這種類型的傳播,因為它的大多數成員都專注於控制醫院的感染,而且他們缺乏關於空氣傳播傳染病如何傳播的物理學專業知識,批評人士說,在 4 月 1 日的會議上,IPC GDG 中沒有人研究過這種疾病傳播。
「如果它是一種新疾病,最好讓所有人都參與進來」,香港大學建築環境工程師 Yuguo Li 說,他對 2002-03 年 SARS 爆發的研究得出的結論是,導致病毒的 SARS-CoV,可能通過空氣傳播途徑傳播。他懷疑 SARS-CoV-2 也是通過空氣傳播的,儘管他最初認為只有短程空氣傳播是可能的。
荷蘭埃因霍溫科技大學室內空氣質量物理學家 Marcel Loomas 表示,通常很難在這兩個學科之間找到共同點。 「在醫療方面,他們不知道氣溶膠在空氣中的表現以及通風的作用」,他說。人們最終總是「彼此互相間只談其過去」。
世衛組織早期關於口罩的建議僅建議感染者及其照護人員使用。圖片來源:S.C. Leung/SOPA Images/LightRocket/Getty
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甚至在使用科學術語時也存在這種脫節。感染控制專家長期以來一直在飛沫病毒和空氣傳播病毒之間劃清界限,認為只有後者能夠傳播很遠並在空中徘徊。 「教條偏見當然是其中很大一部分」,在馬里蘭大學帕克分校研究傳染病氣溶膠傳播的職業健康醫生唐·米爾頓說。他說,他對世衛組織在 4 月 1 日會議後在應對空中威脅方面缺乏行動感到失望,但並不感到驚訝。 「我只是熟悉醫學界的想法」,他說。
但 IPC GDG 主席 Schwaber 以不同的方式回憶了這次會議。「我們非常認真地對待他們在會議上提出的問題,並做出了回應」,他說。「沒有什麼被吹走,沒有什麼被忽視」。
他說,當時,現有證據顯示,整個醫院的空氣傳播預防措施——包括為工作人員、訪客和患者使用的 N95 口罩——是不必要的。儘管如此,面對一線醫生和護士的死亡人數飆升,大多數醫院和衛生機構在其 COVID-19 病房中採取了這些預防措施,並採取了不那麼嚴格的保護措施,例如在醫院的其他區域佩戴外科口罩。
北卡羅來納大學教堂山分校環境微生物學家、IPC GDG 成員馬克·索布西(Mark Sobey)表示,特別是在早期,向世界衛生組織提出的關於空氣傳播的擔憂「在很大程度上是沒有根據的」,並且缺乏可信的證據,例如從空氣樣本中分離出傳染性病毒顆粒。他說,來自疫情調查的流行病學數據「特別薄弱」。
根據英國牛津大學初級保健衛生研究員 Trish Greenhalgh 的說法,IPC GDG 成員受到他們的醫學培訓和醫學領域關於傳染性呼吸道疾病如何傳播的主導思想的指導;這在 SARS-CoV-2 的案例中被證明是有缺陷的,並且對於其他病毒也可能不準確。這些偏見導致該小組低估了相關信息——例如,來自基於實驗室的氣溶膠研究和爆發報告。因此,IPC GDG 得出結論,在一小部分產生氣溶膠的醫療程序(例如將呼吸管插入患者體內)之外,空氣傳播很少或不太可能發生。
這一觀點在 IPC GDG 成員(包括 Schwaber、Sobsey 和 Fisher)於 20202 年 8 月發表的評論中很明確。將此類報告標記為「意見書」。相反,他們得出的結論是「SARS-CoV-2 並沒有在很大程度上通過空氣傳播途徑傳播」。
Greenhalgh 說,實際上,該小組沒有看到正在出現的整體情況。「你必須解釋所有數據,而不僅僅是你選擇來支持你的觀點的數據」,空氣傳播假設最適合所有可用數據,她說。她引用的一個例子是病毒在「超級傳播者事件」中傳播的傾向,其中許多人在一次聚會中被感染,通常是由一個人感染。 「除了氣溶膠傳播之外,沒有什麼能解釋這些超級傳播者事件」,格林哈爾說。
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踏上艱難的道路
位於奧羅拉的科羅拉多公共衛生學院的 IPC GDG 成員、病毒學家 May Chu 表示,WHO 踏上了一條艱難的路線,並且在其建議中往往相當保守,以避免發布後來被證明是不正確的信息。費舍爾補充說,「你不能回溯」建議,因為「那樣你就失去了完全的可信度」。
桑德曼的夥伴喬迪·拉納德 (Jody Lanard) ,一位獨立的風險溝通專家,過去也曾在世界衛生組織工作過。他表示,形勢的嚴重性可能使世衛組織在其聲明中更加謹慎,不太可能偏離共識。
拉納德說,在以前的情況下——例如在西非伊波拉病毒爆發期間和脊髓灰質炎疫苗運動期間——世衛組織比在 COVID-19 大流行期間更加靈活。「我看到他們能夠改變他們的方法,或者嘗試不同的事情」,她說。但在大流行期間「非常非常謹慎是很誘人的」,因為該機構的建議將影響數百萬人的生命。 Loomas 和其他人質疑,為什麼當人們越來越擔心 SARS-CoV-2 可能透過空氣傳播時,即使沒有明確的證據,當認知存在不同風險的可能性時,WHO 卻沒有採取預防措施。
2020 年 4 月,在世界衛生組織強調短距離傳播的呼吸道飛沫的危險之後,台北的學童在隔板後面吃午餐以阻止 COVID-19 的傳播。圖片來源:Sam Yeh/AFP/Getty
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2021 年 5 月,世衛組織一年前成立的負責審查該機構在大流行開始時採取的行動的機構大流行防範和應對獨立小組 (IPPPR) 呼籲世衛組織沒有將預防原則應用於COVID-19 傳播的另一個關鍵方面上——它是否可以在人與人之間傳播(參見 go.nature.com/3iqhfjm)。 IPPPR 在其 2021 年的報告中說:「有理由在由新病原體導致呼吸道感染的任何爆發事件中應用預防原則,從而假設會發生人際傳播除非明確證據表明有其他狀況」報告。
在實踐中,對 SARS-CoV-2(或任何新出現的病原體)如何傳播的問題應用預防方法,意味著最初假設所有傳播途徑都是可能的。 「這應該是你的起點,然後你可以確定路線」,盧曼斯說。
但施瓦伯表示,這種方法存在風險。「要說,患者的最大利益和醫療保健工作者的最大利益涉及援引預防原則,這也意味著援引它沒有不利之處」,他說。對空氣傳播採取全面預防措施將需要對醫院進行重大改變,例如為所有工作人員和訪客使用負壓隔離室和不舒服的 N95 口罩。他說,這些變化需要與需要它們的證據進行權衡。
索布西說,世界衛生組織確實採用了預防原則,部分原因是氣溶膠科學家的建議。他說,這就是為什麼該機構在 2020 年 7 月表示不能排除空氣傳播的原因——以及為什麼它開始更加強調通風作為一種保護措施,儘管當時空氣傳播的證據很薄弱。
「他們並沒有完全錯誤」,李說那些聲稱空氣傳播的證據存在著差距的人,尤其是在更遠的距離時。 「尋求可靠的科學證據並沒有什麼壞處」,他說,但是「當你看到傳播如此之大時,你還在等待一篇好的『自然』或『科學』之期刊文章嗎?」,他說。
儘管如此,儘管存在不確定性,其他衛生組織的行動仍比世衛組織更快。 2020 年 2 月,中國疾病預防控制中心聯繫了李,就公共建築和公共交通的空調提供建議。他說,在李的建議下,該中心建議從外部最大限度地增加建築物內的氣流,以幫助清除任何空氣傳播的傳染病。當時,李不認為通風會大大減少他懷疑僅是在短距離內透過空氣傳播之病毒的感染——但他後來反駁了這一假設。他仍建議改善通風,因為「我始終支持預防措施」,他說。
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溝通上的問題
希門尼斯說,仍然缺少的一件事是來自世界衛生組織的明確宣傳活動。其總幹事 Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus 在 2021 年 6 月 7 日該機構關於在突發衛生事件期間傳播科學全球會議上的開幕詞中承認了其挑戰。「科學過程、緊急情況下的決策制定和大眾的溝通很不容易調適在一起」,譚德塞說,並補充說「高質量的研究需要時間,但時間是我們在緊急情況下所沒有的東西」。
在大流行的最初幾個月,世衛組織正在其他方面進行戰鬥。在努力解決防護設備和呼吸機短缺問題的同時,它也在應對有關未經證實的 COVID-19 治療方法的錯誤信息,以及美國威脅要從該組織撤資的威脅。
但批評人士說,即使在大流行兩年後,世衛組織也沒有明確傳達空氣傳播的風險。而且,也許因此,世界各國政府將大流行的大部分時間都花在了洗手和表面清潔上,而不是通風和室內口罩上。
希門尼斯說:「毫無疑問,不斷變化信息的雜音引起了人們對口罩和其他措施的抵制」。
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mRNA疫苗的糾結歷史
2021 年 12 月 15 日,距世衛組織網站上更改最新的措辭不到兩週,希門尼斯在推特上呼籲提供證據,證明許多政府和機構是如何「不知道怎麼去保護其公民,或使用@WHO網站上的模棱兩可訊息來避免這樣做」。他列舉了 100 多個當時的健康建議與空氣傳播預防措施不一致的例子,表明該信息並未從該機構過濾掉。
希門尼斯不斷收到這樣的例子。現在該機構已經更改了其主要網站上的措辭,希門尼斯可以呼籲這些他所標示為「COVID 恥辱大廳」之罪犯,去提供不再與國際衛生機構順符的建議。
「這就是世衛組織的一點傲慢」,楚說。「一旦你發布[新指引],它就會非常被動。他們希望您拜訪他們的網站,但他們不需要去宣傳它」。
但這正是所需要的,Jimenez 說,特別是考慮到該機構仍然困擾著早期的溝通,例如它關於 COVID-19 沒有空氣傳播的推文。希門尼斯說:「毫無疑問,我們將持續存在的錯誤信息歸因於世衛組織的聲明和堅定的立場,在大流行的早期階段,當時我們都害怕並渴望學習如何保護自己」。
該機構在整個大流行期間持續為其行動辯護。一位發言人在上個月給《自然》的一份聲明中說:「自 COVID-19 流行早期以來,世衛組織一直在尋求工程師、建築師和空氣生物學家的專業知識以及傳染病、感染預防和控制、病毒學、肺病學和其他領域的專業知識。2020 年 8 月,我們為 COVID-19 建立了環境與工程控制專家諮詢小組 (ECAP),透過相關技術有關的現有證據(介入措施上的利弊)進行評估和批判性解釋,為 COVID-19 背景下包括室內空氣品質管理和通風等工程控制措施之制定,提供專家指導意見上之貢獻」。
該組織表示,初步指引涵蓋了醫療機構中的空氣傳播預防措施,但指出:「隨著 COVID-19 傳播證據的擴大,我們了解到稱為氣溶膠的較小尺寸的傳染性顆粒也發揮作用。在社區環境中傳播,世衛組織已調整其指南和信息,已在 2020 年 12 月對我們的口罩指引的更新中反映這一點」。
批評人士說,並沒有充分強調他們在空氣傳播風險方面所做的改變,世衛組織回應表示,他們在大流行期間舉行了大約 250 場新聞發布會和數百場現場社交媒體活動。並補充說,他們還透過社交媒體管道、與醫生會議和向科學家發送系列郵件來發布信息。
一些研究人員認為,這還不夠。英國愛丁堡納皮爾大學微生物學家斯蒂芬妮·丹瑟(Stephanie Dancer)表示,世衛組織需要明確表明自己的立場,以便其他人遵循其領導。「他們必須表現出真正的性格力量,站起來說,『我們錯了,我們會做對的,這是我們的下一組的指引,這就是我們要去的地方,這就是我們的建議』」,她說。
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脫離不好的開場
溫哥華不列顛哥倫比亞大學的歷史學家和公共政策專家海蒂·托雷克說,部分問題在於世衛組織在大流行開始時是多麼強調。她說:「不幸的是,要說 COVID 肯定不是空氣傳播的,這意味著要爬上一座巨大的山丘才能消除這種情況」。她說,從一開始,世界衛生組織和其他公共衛生當局和政府就應該強調 SARS-CoV-2 是一種新的冠狀病毒,而指導方針將不可避免地會發生改變。「當他們如此這樣做時,這將是一件好事,因為這意味著我們知道的更多」。
「我們在這裡真正談論的是兩次的失敗,而不是一次」,桑德曼說。「不願意改變主意,也不願意告訴別人你改變了主意」。他說,與其他公共衛生和科學組織一樣,世衛組織「害怕承認自己做錯了什麼而失去其信譽」。
但是,當拉納德在 2005 年與世界衛生組織合作起草其風險溝通指引時,她倡導的一個原則——在錯誤和錯誤發生時承認錯誤——卻從最終的草案中被刪除。她說,這一決定背後有充分的理由,包括一些國家的衛生官員可能會面臨被監禁——或者更糟——如果他們宣傳了來自世衛組織的信息,但結果被證明是不正確的。一些國家的官員和科學顧問在大流行期間收到了死亡威脅。「不可避免地,有時你會弄錯」,弗里登說。他說,世衛組織的立場意味著「無論他們做什麼,都會受到攻擊」。
在科學方面,關於 COVID-19 傳播中有多少是透過空氣傳播途徑的問題仍然存在。索布西說,研究人員仍然需要拿出證據證明空氣傳播「對整體疾病負擔做出了重要貢獻」。在過道另一邊的許多人,例如希門尼斯,相信空氣傳播占主導地位。美國科技政策辦公室在 3 月 23 日表示強烈支持這一觀點,當時其負責人 Alondra Nelson 發表了一份名「讓我們清除 COVID-19 的空氣」的聲明,其中說「COVID-19 從一個人到另一個人最常見的傳播方式是透過空氣中微小的病毒顆粒,在感染者到達後在室內空氣中懸浮幾分鐘或幾小時」。
其他長期懷疑透過空氣傳播的病毒——包括流感和普通感冒病毒——也將受到審查。 2021 年 9 月,美國國立衛生研究院授予 Milton 數百萬美元的計畫款,用於開展試驗,以確定空氣傳播或飛沫傳播途徑是否會導致流感感染。
李說,由於 COVID-19 大流行,人們對空氣傳播的認識要大得多,未來幾年的研究可能會顯示,大多數呼吸道病毒都可以透過這種方式傳播。因此,當新舊傳染病開始傳播時,全世界將更加警惕空氣傳播威脅的可能性。
索布西說,在世界衛生組織中,態度也發生了變化。 「我認為,由於經歷了這種病毒,世衛組織的思想發生了翻天覆地的變化」,他說,「那就是——即使你不確定,也要更加謹慎」。
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參考文獻:
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Why the WHO took two years to say COVID is airborne
Early in the pandemic, the World Health Organization stated that SARS-CoV-2 was not transmitted through the air. That mistake and the prolonged process of correcting it sowed confusion and raises questions about what will happen in the next pandemic.
Public-health advice on COVID-19 in early 2020 focused on sanitizing surfaces more than protecting against airborne transmission. Credit: Ozan Kose/AFP/Getty
As 2021 drew to a close, the highly contagious Omicron variant of the pandemic virus was racing around the globe, forcing governments to take drastic actions once again. The Netherlands ordered most businesses to close on 19 December, Ireland set curfews and many countries imposed travel bans in the hope of taming the tsunami of COVID-19 cases filling hospitals. Amid the wave of desperate news around the year-end holidays, one group of researchers hailed a development that had seemed as though it might never arrive. On 23 December, the World Health Organization (WHO) uttered the one word it had previously seemed incapable of applying to the virus SARS-CoV-2: ‘airborne’.
On its website, a page titled ‘Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): How is it transmitted?’ was quietly edited to state that a person can be infected “when infectious particles that pass through the air are inhaled at short range”, a process otherwise known as “short-range aerosol or short-range airborne transmission”. The website says that transmission can occur through “long-range airborne transmission” in poorly ventilated or crowded indoor settings “because aerosols can remain suspended in the air or travel farther than conversational distance”.
“It was a relief to see them finally use the word ‘airborne’, and to say clearly that airborne transmission and aerosol transmission are synonyms,” says aerosol chemist Jose-Luis Jimenez at the University of Colorado Boulder.
The seemingly uncontroversial statement marked a clear shift for the Switzerland-based WHO, which had tweeted categorically early in the pandemic, “FACT: #COVID19 is NOT airborne,” casting the negative in capital letters as if to remove any doubt. At that time, the agency maintained that the virus spreads mainly through droplets produced when a person coughs, sneezes or speaks, an assumption based on decades-old infection-control teachings about how respiratory viruses generally pass from one person to another. The guidance recommended distancing of more than one metre — within which these droplets were thought to fall to the ground — along with hand washing and surface disinfection to stop transfer of droplets to the eyes, nose and mouth.
It took until 20 October 2020 for the agency to acknowledge that aerosols — tiny specks of fluid — can transmit the virus, but the WHO said this was a concern only in specific settings, such as indoor, crowded and inadequately ventilated spaces. Over the next six months, the agency gradually altered its advice to say that aerosols could carry the virus for more than a metre and remain in the air (see ‘Changing views of how COVID spreads’).
But this latest tweak is the WHO’s clearest statement yet about airborne transmission of SARS-CoV-2. And it places the virus among a select group of ‘airborne’ infections, a label long reserved for just a handful of the world’s most virulent pathogens, including measles, chickenpox and tuberculosis.
The change brings the WHO’s messaging in line with what a chorus of aerosol and public-health experts have been trying to get it to say since the earliest days of the outbreak. Many decry the agency’s slowness in stating — unambiguously — that SARS-CoV-2 is airborne. Interviews conducted by Nature with dozens of specialists on disease transmission suggest that the WHO’s reluctance to accept and communicate evidence for airborne transmission was based on a series of problematic assumptions about how respiratory viruses spread.
For example, even in the middle of the fast-moving epidemic, the WHO dismissed field epidemiology reports as proof of airborne transmission because the evidence was not definitive, something that is difficult to achieve quickly during an outbreak. Other criticisms are that the WHO relies on a narrow band of experts, many of whom haven’t studied airborne transmission, and that it eschews a precautionary approach that could have protected countless people in the early stages of the pandemic.
Critics say that inaction at the agency led to national and local health agencies around the world being similarly sluggish in addressing the airborne threat. Having shifted its position incrementally over the past two years, the WHO also failed to adequately communicate its changing position, they say. As a result, it didn’t emphasize early enough and clearly enough the importance of ventilation and indoor masking, key measures that can prevent airborne spread of the virus. Lidia Morawska, an aerosol scientist at the Queensland University of Technology in Brisbane, Australia, spearheaded several efforts to convince the WHO and other health agencies of the airborne threat. She says that airborne transmission was “so obvious” as far back as February 2020, and that omitting it from official guidelines was disastrous.
Mounting evidence suggests coronavirus is airborne — but health advice has not caught up
But Dale Fisher, an infectious-diseases physician at the National University Hospital in Singapore and chair of the WHO’s Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network steering committee, doesn’t think that confusion over whether the virus is airborne has had a defining impact on how the pandemic has played out. “It’s not the cause of the catastrophe we’ve seen,” he says.
Some other researchers defend the agency’s response, given the rapidly evolving situation. “I really don’t think anybody dropped the ball, including WHO,” says Mitchell Schwaber, an infectious-diseases physician at Israel’s ministry of health and an external adviser to the WHO. “So many assumptions that we had about this virus were proven false. We always, we always were learning new things.”
Resolving this debate about how to assess the transmission of respiratory viruses matters, say researchers, because a more deadly variant of SARS-CoV-2 could emerge at any time, and new respiratory viruses will almost certainly plague humanity at some point. It’s not clear whether the WHO and the world will be ready.
Tension in the air
In the final days of March 2020, Morawska contacted dozens of colleagues — an international mix of aerosol scientists, infectious-disease specialists, and building and ventilation engineers — to get the word out about the airborne threat of SARS-CoV-2. On 1 April 2020, the group sent an e-mail laying out their case to Michael Ryan, head of the WHO’s Health Emergencies Programme, and Maria Van Kerkhove, technical lead of the WHO’s COVID-19 response.
Within an hour, the agency was on the phone. Two days later, the group attended a video conference with members of the Health Emergencies Programme and the Infection Prevention and Control Guidance Development Group (IPC GDG) — an external group of about 40 clinicians and researchers that advises the WHO on infection containment, especially in hospitals. At the time of the meeting, more than one million people had been infected with SARS-CoV-2, and 54,000 had died. Community spread was rampant in several countries.
Morawska presented what she says was a compelling case for airborne transmission. Two facts stood out. First, there was solid evidence that people were becoming infected even when they were more than one metre — the safe distance recommended by the WHO — from a contagious individual. Second, years of mechanistic studies had demonstrated how mucus in a person’s airway can spray into aerosols during speech and accumulate in stagnant rooms. Morawska felt rebuffed by the WHO and its advisers. “I didn’t have a feeling that they were trying to see this from our perspective,” she says.
She and other people who study aerosols and airborne disease transmission say that the IPC GDG is ill-equipped to assess this type of transmission because most of its members have focused on controlling infections in hospitals and they lack expertise in the physics of how airborne contagions spread. At the time of the 1 April meeting, no one in the IPC GDG had studied this type of disease transmission, say critics.
“If it is a new disease, you better include everyone,” says Yuguo Li, a building environment engineer at the University of Hong Kong, whose study of the SARS outbreak in 2002–03 had concluded that the virus responsible, SARS-CoV, probably spread through the airborne route. He suspected that SARS-CoV-2 was also airborne, although he initially thought that only short-range airborne transmission was likely.
Marcel Loomans, an indoor-air-quality physicist at Eindhoven University of Technology in the Netherlands, says that it is often hard to find common ground between the two disciplines. “On the medical side, they were not aware of how aerosols behave in the air and what ventilation can do,” he says. People end up “talking past each other”.
Early WHO advice on masks recommended them only for infected people and their carers.Credit: S.C. Leung/SOPA Images/LightRocket/Getty
The disconnect was there even in the use of scientific terms. Infection-control experts have long drawn a hard line between droplet viruses and airborne ones, seeing only the latter as capable of travelling far and lingering in the air. “Dogmatic bias is certainly a big part of it,” says Don Milton, an occupational-health physician who studies aerosol transmission of infectious diseases at the University of Maryland in College Park. He says that he was disappointed but not surprised by the WHO’s lack of action in addressing the airborne threat after the 1 April meeting. “I’m just familiar with how the medical profession thinks,” he says.
But Schwaber, who chairs the IPC GDG, recalls the meeting differently. “We took very seriously the issues that they raised at the meeting, and responded to them,” he says. “Nothing was being blown off, nothing was being ignored.”
At the time, he says, the available evidence suggested that airborne precautions throughout hospitals — including N95 masks for staff, visitors and patients — were unnecessary. Still, faced with soaring deaths among frontline doctors and nurses, most hospitals and health agencies adopted these precautions on their COVID-19 wards, as well as less-stringent protections such as wearing surgical masks in other areas of the hospital.
Mark Sobsey, an environmental microbiologist at the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill who is a member of the IPC GDG, says that especially in the early days, the concerns brought to the WHO about airborne transmission were “largely unfounded” and lacked credible evidence, such as the isolation of infectious virus particles from air samples. Epidemiological data from outbreak investigations were “especially weak”, he says.
According to Trish Greenhalgh, a primary-care health researcher at the University of Oxford, UK, the IPC GDG members were guided by their medical training and the dominant thinking in the medical field about how infectious respiratory diseases spread; this turned out to be flawed in the case of SARS-CoV-2 and could be inaccurate for other viruses as well. These biases led the group to discount relevant information — from laboratory-based aerosol studies and outbreak reports, for instance. So the IPC GDG concluded that airborne transmission was rare or unlikely outside a small set of aerosol-generating medical procedures, such as inserting a breathing tube into a patient.
That viewpoint is clear in a commentary by members of the IPC GDG, including Schwaber, Sobsey and Fisher, published in August 20202. The authors dismissed research using air-flow modelling, case reports describing possible airborne transmission and summaries of evidence for airborne transmission, labelling such reports “opinion pieces”. Instead, they concluded that “SARS-CoV-2 is not spread by the airborne route to any significant extent”.
In effect, the group failed to look at the whole picture that was emerging, says Greenhalgh. “You’ve got to explain all the data, not just the data that you’ve picked to support your view,” and the airborne hypothesis is the best fit for all the data available, she says. One example she cites is the propensity for the virus to transmit in ‘superspreader events’, in which numerous individuals are infected at a single gathering, often by a single person. “Nothing explains some of these superspreader events except aerosol spread,” says Greenhalgh.
Hard line to tread
Virologist May Chu, a member of the IPC GDG at the Colorado School of Public Health in Aurora, says that the WHO treads a difficult line, and tends to be quite conservative in its recommendations to avoid putting out information that later proves to be incorrect. “You can’t be backtracking” on advice, adds Fisher, because “then you lose complete credibility”.
The gravity of the situation might have made the WHO even more cautious in its pronouncements and less likely to stray from consensus views, according to Sandman’s partner Jody Lanard, an independent risk-communications specialist who has also worked with the WHO in the past.
In previous situations — such as during the Ebola outbreak in West Africa, and in polio vaccine campaigns — the WHO was more nimble than it has been during the COVID-19 pandemic, Lanard says. “I’ve seen them be able to change what their approach was, or try different things,” she says. But during the pandemic “it’s so tempting to be very, very cautious”, because millions of lives will be affected by the agency’s recommendations. Loomans and others question why, when concerns were growing that SARS-CoV-2 could be airborne, the WHO didn’t adopt a precautionary approach by acknowledging the possibility of different risks, even without definitive proof.
Schoolchildren in Taipei eat lunch behind partitions to stop the spread of COVID-19 in April 2020, after the WHO stressed the dangers of respiratory droplets that travel short distances.Credit: Sam Yeh/AFP/Getty
And in May 2021, the Independent Panel for Pandemic Preparedness and Response (IPPPR), a body established by the WHO a y